1The authors wish to inform readers that one of them was an engineer with the Shinsegea Group and professionally involved in the initial planning of the Hwaseong International Theme Park Project. While this position provided a privileged vantage point from which to observe the development of the new city and its technological and social infrastructure, this paper was subject to the duty of discretion and confidentiality clauses inherent in the employee’s role. Therefore, all information used in this article is publicly available, in order to avoid any conflict with the confidentiality obligations to which any employee working for a private operator is bound by law and contractual commitments. 2In a world facing complex urban challenges ranging from climate change and demographic shifts to infrastructural degradation, city planning stakeholders are increasingly expected to strike a balance between economic vitality, environmental sustainability, and social inclusion. Designed to address these multi-dimensional issues, a new paradigm has gained international traction for urban development: that of sustainable smart city, which integrates digital innovation with long-term social and ecological goals (de Jong et al., 2015; Caragliu et al., 2011). This shift reflects a broader recognition that sustainability must not only be an environmental concern, but also a governance challenge and a matter of citizen empowerment. 3South Korea stands out as one of the early adopters of smart city strategies, beginning with its Ubiquitous City (U-City) model in the early 2000s. This model aimed to enhance administrative efficiency through ICT-based infrastructure and public service platforms. However, its supply-driven, infrastructure-centered nature revealed key limitations over time—especially in fostering citizen participation and adaptive urban governance (Kang et al., 2015). According to the 2017 “Act on the Promotion of Smart City Development and Industry”, a smart city in South Korea is defined as a sustainable urban environment built on integrated